Xanthosine

Xanthosine is a nucleoside derived from xanthine and ribose. Xanthosine activates the AMPK/FoxO1/AKT/GSK3β signaling cascade. Xanthosine promotes cell proliferation and regulates blood glucose metabolism. Xanthosine increases milk production in cows and goats. Xanthosine is used in mammary stem cell and type 2 diabetes research^{[1][2][3][4][5][6]}. In Vitro:Xanthosine (200 μM) increases the population of bovine mammary epithelial cells (MEC) during the exponential phase of cell growth, reduces the doubling time, promotes symmetric cell division^[1].
Xanthosine (1.75-17.6 μM; 2 h) enhances glucose uptake, decreases glucose production, increases glycogen content, and activates AKT phosphorylation in FFA-induced CC1 hepatocytes^[3].
In Vivo:Xanthosine (9.6 mg Xanthosine dehydrate dissolved in 300 μL PBS; i.p.; 14 consecutive days) has a latent negative effect on bovine mammary cell proliferation in immunodeficient mice with bovine mammary implants^[2].
Xanthosine (up to 5 mg/kg) has no effect on the cat blood pressure^[4].
Xanthosine (1.5-2 mL; 10 mM; intraductal infusion and parenchymal injection; 5 consecutive days) significantly increases the number of label-retaining epithelial cells (LREC) and telomerase activity in the mammary glands of female Holstein calves, indicating an expansion of the mammary stem cell population^[5].