Octopamine

Octopamine ((±)-p-Octopamine) is an orally active neurotransmitter and neuromodulator that can cross the blood-brain barrier. Octopamine activates octopamine receptors (octopamine receptor), G protein-coupled/Gαs-coupled receptors (G protein-coupled/Gαs-coupled receptor), adenylyl cyclase (adenylyl cyclase)/cAMP, calcium, and hyperpolarizing conductance increases. Octopamine can be used in research on various neurological diseases, metabolic diseases, and cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases^[1][2][3][4]. In Vitro:Octopamine activates sensitizing receptors and elevates cyclic adenosine monophosphate in the nervous system of Aplysia californica^[1].
Octopamine increases cyclic adenosine monophosphate, elicits light flashing, and inhibits muscle contraction in insect tissues, including cockroach nerve cord, firefly lantern, and locust/grasshopper muscle^[1].
Octopamine (0.01 M) increases pyruvate concentration in isolated honeybee dorsolongitudinal flight muscle, indicating enhanced glycolysis^[2]. In Vivo:Octopamine (0.01 M in saline; flight muscle injection; single administration) reverses Reserpine (HY-N0480)-induced hypothermia and increases cAMP in honeybee flight muscle, and increases honeybee AmGAPDH expression^[2].